The Journal of Central Asian Studies

Central of Central Asian Studies

University of Kashmir

ISSN: 0975-086X

Turkmenistan’s foreign policy toward Taliban-ruled Afghanistan is characterized by its longstanding doctrine of positive neutrality, emphasizing economic engagement, regional security cooperation, and diplomatic pragmatism. This study critically examines Turkmenistan’s evolving approach to the Taliban, assessing its diplomatic strategies, economic interests, and security considerations. While Turkmenistan has prioritized infrastructure projects, particularly the Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan-India (TAPI) pipeline, challenges arise due to Afghanistan’s unstable political landscape and the threat posed by Islamic State-Khorasan (IS-K). The study also explores Turkmenistan’s security policies, including intelligence-sharing and border security cooperation, while maintaining its non-alignment stance. The findings suggest that Ashgabat’s strategy is driven by pragmatic economic interests rather than ideological alignment with the Taliban. Policy recommendations highlight the need for greater multilateral engagement, enhanced regional security cooperation, and expanded economic diplomacy to ensure stability and sustainable engagement with Afghanistan. The paper concludes that while Turkmenistan’s neutrality serves as a diplomatic advantage, it also poses limitations in responding to emerging threats. The future of Turkmenistan-Taliban relations will depend on Afghanistan’s internal governance trajectory and broader regional geopolitical shifts. This research contributes to the scholarly discourse on Central Asian diplomacy, emphasizing Turkmenistan’s role in regional stability amidst Afghanistan’s uncertain political and security landscape.

The five Central Asian countries Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan, became independent in the early 1990s, more precisely after the fall of the Soviet Union. The region is richly endowed with abundant availability of natural resources like crude oil, natural gas, cotton, gold, copper, aluminium, iron, uranium, hydropower potential, etc. which made the region of great significance and prime attention of international powers. Central Asia is also a strong market for millions of customers. India took a keen interest in the region. India’s major concerns with Central Asian republics include energy, security, trade in investment infrastructure development, the fight against Islamic fundamentalism, and so on. In this paper, I want to show how Central Asia is playing a role as a geopolitical chessboard. And which players are playing a major role on the chessboard and why.

In the galaxy of Persian poets and scholars who tirelessly contributed to the growth and development of Persian literature in all its manifestations, Muhammad Naqeeb Khan Tughral Ahrari managed to occupy special status in the Sufistic traditions and Persian language and literature. Tughral Ahrari (1865) a towering scholar of 19th century, born and brought up in Tajikistan is deemed as a bedrock and representative of high styled contemporary Persian poetry, language and literature. As against the philosophical treatises, more akin to Persian poetry, Tughral went beyond the conventional limits and used the format of Persian national poetry and its epic traditions. The profound quality of his poems has dominated the minds of not only the Persians, but all populace living in the vast region from the Oxus to the Transcaucasia. His diligent mind, poetic style, Sufi precepts and eloquence influenced his predecessors to such a degree that he is revered not only as a poet but a saint in disguise and is rated among the tallest and versatile poets with sound spiritual dimensions. Muhammad Naqeeb Khan Tughral Ahrar, is in fact a culminating figure in Persio-Islamic culture, whose reputation and influence has remained undiminished throughout the Central Asian region. Primarily celebrated as a poet, Ahrari was an accomplished Islamic scholar, a Sufi of great standing and an acerbic polemist and social critic. In the backdrop of these introductory remarks present paper would be an attempt to; i) unfold the literary legacy of the region to identify the place and status of Toghral Ahrari. ii) sketch the position and poetic vision of Taghral Ahrari and refer to the similarities that exist between him and celebrated scholars of the world, and iii) explore the contribution of Taghral Ahrari in the Sufi-Poetic discourse of the region.

This article examines the state-building and nation formation processes in Kazakhstan from its independence in 1991 to the present. It explores the key dimensions of Kazakhstan’s societal evolution, including political, economic, and social changes, as well as the challenges and opportunities that have emerged in the post-independence era. The article provides an analysis of economic reforms, urbanization, demographic shifts, and changes in social structures, highlighting the country’s transition from a centrally planned economy to a market-oriented system. It also explores Kazakhstan’s diverse ethnic landscape, the government’s efforts to promote a multi-ethnic national identity, and the rise of civil society in response to evolving social and political dynamics. Kazakhstan’s transition to a market economy has been driven by its vast natural resources, particularly in the oil and gas sectors, attracting significant foreign investment. This economic transformation has fostered growth and urbanization, particularly in major cities such as Almaty and Nur-Sultan, while also exacerbating regional disparities. Social welfare reforms, including improvements in healthcare, education, and the pension system, have sought to modernize the Soviet-era social safety net, yet challenges remain in achieving equitable service provision across the country. The article posits that Kazakhstan’s post-Soviet experience offers valuable insights into the process of state-building and nation formation in a complex, diverse, and transitional context.

This study is descriptive in nature and tries to understand the status of capitalism in Central Asian states, once a part of the Soviet Union and were functioning under the preview of Soviet economy system that was largely planned or command economy system, but post-independence, these states adopted the market reforms introducing liberal approach towards economic system including liberalization, privatization and macro-economic stabilization. Capitalism is one of the liberal economic systems that is not a contemporary phenomenon, it’s been there in the civilizations because of the philosophy i.e., “self-interest”. But capitalism as a system persists in various shades, “social capitalism, welfare capitalism, corporate capitalism, state capitalism, crony capitalism, monopoly capitalism, finance capitalism, resource driven capitalism”. So, this study delves into the status of capitalism in Central Asian states and tries to discuss their importance during Soviet Union, then economic reforms particularly capitalism in their economies and to discuss the various shades in which capitalism exists in since last thirty-five years.

This article explores Iran’s evolving relationship with Central Asian states, focusing on the intersections of strategic, economic, and cultural dimensions that underpin these engagements. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Iran has worked to re-establish connections across Central Asia, driven by shared cultural heritage and mutual economic interests. Central Asia’s strategic location and vast natural resources present both an opportunity and a challenge for Iran, especially in light of competing regional powers such as Russia and China, alongside U.S.-led sanctions. Key areas of engagement include energy partnerships, infrastructure development, security cooperation, and cultural diplomacy, all of which support Iran’s position as a strategic partner for Central Asia. Despite external pressures, Iran has developed adaptive economic and diplomatic strategies that reinforce its influence in the region. This analysis demonstrates Iran’s role in fostering regional connectivity and stability, particularly through projects like the North-South Transport Corridor, which provide Central Asian states with essential access to international markets. Additionally, Iran’s contribution to regional security through counter-terrorism initiatives, border management, and cultural outreach solidifies its partnerships with Central Asian countries. The paper concludes that Iran’s engagement with Central Asia offers significant prospects for strengthened economic and security ties, which contribute to a balanced regional order and promote cooperative growth in a multipolar world.

The post-Soviet era did not seem to provide equitable growth opportunities for all its constituent countries. The group of Central Asian countries has experienced divergence in growth from the Western cohorts of ex-Soviet counties, which have grown faster in the last 33 years during 1990-2022. The Central Asian countries had a growth shock, experiencing a negative growth rate during 1990-95, and recovered to a positive growth later. The western block counties also suffered a similar initial growth shock during (1990-95) but recovered on a faster growth trajectory. The Central Asian countries began with lesser per capita income, with a lower degree of industrialization and primary exports. The study estimated the β and σ-convergence between the two cohorts and found evidence for conditional convergence between and within the two cohorts. The study also estimates rates of conditional convergence. The study highlights the higher potential for the Central Asian countries to grow faster with the help of human and physical infrastructure investments. The study also fills the gap in the convergence studies in the international literature.

The disintegration of the U.S.S.R (United Soviet Socialist Republic) paved the way for the formation of smaller states in the Eurasian region. Kazakhstan has diverse ethnic composition and its Titular nationality i.e., ‘Kazakh’ was in minority at the time of independence. The diverse ethnic diversity of Kazakhstan posed a great challenge for maintaining cordial relations among various ethnic groups. However, the declaration of independence is followed by the State and Nation Building processes in the region and Kazakhstan was no exception to this process. Brubaker argued that the newly independent states moved towards the Ethno- nationalism. These states placed the ‘ethnic core’ in the state nomenclature. The language of the ethnic core became the official language of state. These decision by the state were inimical towards the development of equality of minority cultures in the public and political sphere. Many political scientists argued that these steps were important for the nation and state building in an assertive manner (Brubaker, 1996). Kazakhstan is a home for more than 130 ethnic groups. After a few years of independence many ethnic and national minorities started migrating from the region. However, Kazakhstan transition was smooth. ethnic conflicts and civil wars situation did notarise in Kazakhstan which happened after independence in neighbouring states of central Asian region. Kazakhstan was the most peaceful country in the region in the early 1990’s. Though the minorities were under the constant fear of facing the state sponsored assimilative tendencies from the state. Kazakhstan’s major task was to build a strong state from the ashes of U.S.S.R and to maintain a favourable conditions for minorities to check migration and separatist tendencies. This paper has tried to delve into the institutional provisions made by the Kazakhstanstate to maintain cordial relations among various ethnic groups in the newly independent country.

Entrepreneurship plays a critical role in driving sustainable economic development, especially in emerging economies like Tajikistan. Since gaining independence, Tajikistan has faced numerous economic challenges, including political instability, geographic isolation, and limited access to resources. In recent years, however, entrepreneurship has emerged as a key factor in fostering economic resilience and diversification. This paper explores the impact of entrepreneurial activity on Tajikistan’s sustainable development, focusing on the contributions of small and medium enterprises (SMEs) to GDP growth, employment, and poverty reductionwithin the context of a developing country by addressing these researchquestions: 1) How can entrepreneurship contribute to sustainable economic development in Tajikistan? 2) What are the major challenges and opportunities for entrepreneurs in Tajikistan? 3) What policy interventions are necessary to foster a more robust entrepreneurial ecosystem in the country? 4) How does entrepreneurship promote social inclusion, particularly for marginalised groups such as women and rural populations? 5) What role can entrepreneurship play in achieving environmental sustainability in Tajikistan? This paper concludes by emphasising the need for continued policy support, infrastructure investment, and collaboration with international organizations to foster a more inclusive and sustainable entrepreneurial ecosystem in Tajikistan. Through targeted support, entrepreneurship can be a transformative force in achieving sustainable economic growth, social inclusion, and environmental stewardship in the country.

India’s ties to Central Asia have improved significantly in recent years. This gathered momentum after PM Modi’s 2015 visits to each of the five nations, and subsequent initiatives by Prime Minister Narendra Modi have further strengthened the strategic ties with those republics. The underlying purpose of this study is to show that, since Modi came to power, there has been greater strategic outreach to CAR. These republics have received a greater strategic attention from New Delhi due to shifting geopolitical realities and great power contestations there. The paper also delves into how India has improved the institutional framework for its strategic engagement with Central Asian Republics, both at the bilateral and regional levels. Subsequently, the paper also lists India’s challenges in connecting with the Central Asian Republics and delineates the strategic significance of these republics to India. This paper provides a systematic account of all major developments in India’s relations with these republics since 2014. Finally, this research paper substantiates the fact that there has been greater strategic engagement with CAR post-2014, after Narendra Modi came to power.

India’s ties to Central Asia have improved significantly in recent years. This gathered momentum after PM Modi’s 2015 visits to each of the five nations, and subsequent initiatives by Prime Minister Narendra Modi have further strengthened the strategic ties with those republics. The underlying purpose of this study is to show that, since Modi came to power, there has been greater strategic outreach to CAR. These republics have received a greater strategic attention from New Delhi due to shifting geopolitical realities and great power contestations there. The paper also delves into how India has improved the institutional framework for its strategic engagement with Central Asian Republics, both at the bilateral and regional levels. Subsequently, the paper also lists India’s challenges in connecting with the Central Asian Republics and delineates the strategic significance of these republics to India. This paper provides a systematic account of all major developments in India’s relations with these republics since 2014. Finally, this research paper substantiates the fact that there has been greater strategic engagement with CAR post-2014, after Narendra Modi came to power.

Kuṣāṇa Numismatics is a subject with more contestations than resolutions. Extensity of coinage production, and their integral linkage with Kings and Polity makes Kuṣāṇa coins significant. While some of the more mystique issues have been provisioned with a satisfactoryattribution, others await this feat. In this paper, an attempt has been made to analytically comprehend and tentatively purpose a novel identity of the deity-figure on some extremely rare Ganesho-type copper coins issued by Huviṣka, and utilize this attributive measure to comment further on the Cultural-numismatic complexities that distinguish the politicalcontext and numismatic issues of Huviṣka from those of his predecessors.

Kashmir from ancient times has remained one of the known places for art and craft, among these the art of quality paper making was one of significant gifts (Habib 2012). The transmission of this craft to Kashmir occurred during the reign of Sultan Zainul Abedin (1420-1470) from Samarkand, Uzbekistan and subsequently flourished to its pinnacle during the era of Akbar the Great (Lawrence 1895; Hassan 1971; Sufi 1952). Kashmiri paper attained widespread demand across the Indian subcontinent, especially for manuscripts and was utilized by all who intended to impart dignity to their correspondence. This research seeks to elucidate the historical context in which paper manufacture flourished in Kashmir.